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Cabañeros National Park
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Cabañeros

Cabañeros National Park

Flora of Cabañeros

From dry ridges to peat bogs: why each corner of Cabañeros grows what it grows.

Start with the landscapes7 chapters with drawings · 16 more minutes if you open the full texts

1Introduction

A textbook Mediterranean forest

Cabañeros is one of the best examples of Mediterranean forest in the Iberian Peninsula: shady woods, dehesas, scrub, rocky outcrops, riverside woods and water plants, with at least 32 habitats of community interest.1

32 habitats of community interest

Read the full text1 min

Introduction

Cabañeros is, without doubt, one of the best representations of Mediterranean woodland on the Iberian Peninsula. Its natural value lies in a mix of geological, ecological and anthropological agents that have shaped this unique setting throughout history. Its vegetation is made up of a wide variety of very different landscapes, such as shady woods, dehesa systems, sparse scrub, communities on rock, gallery woods and aquatic vegetation. It is home to at least 32 habitats of Community interest, included in the European Union’s Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC.

In this section on the flora of Cabañeros we will look at the main plant communities, taking into account their floristic composition, spatial distribution, ecology and conservation. The aim is to interpret the landscape in terms of variables such as altitude, aspect, topography or human action.

2Climate

The rain comes from the south-west

A Mediterranean climate: three to five months of summer drought and very irregular rainfall, from less than 200 mm in some years to more than 1,000 in others.2 And inside the park it does not rain the same everywhere.

What rules a plant

  • What is not alive
  • Climate
  • Soil
  • Relief
  • What is alive
  • Animals
  • People

Ábregos in winter, anticyclone in summer

Navas de Estena750 mmEl Torno450 mmÁbregos ↗AAzores anticyclone

The rain is brought by the ábregos, wet south-westerly winds from the Atlantic that lose their water as they move east.

In summer the Azores anticyclone moves up to our latitude and acts as a wall: the storms from the west cannot get through.

From 750 mm a year at Navas de Estena, in the north-west, to 450 at El Torno, in the south-east.3

Schematic; the park boundary, from OpenStreetMap.

Climb the mountain with the thermometer

As you climb, the air gets colder: about 1 °C every 150 metres. Between the raña, at about 600 metres, and the top of Rocigalgo, at 1,449, there are about 5 °C of difference.4

600 m800 m1000 m1200 m1400 mSea of cloudsRañaRocigalgo, 1,449 mSupramediterraneanMesomediterranean

−5.7 °C less than on the raña

By day, the air in the valleys warms up first and rises up the slopes: these are the anabatic winds.

On cold, clear nights the opposite happens: the freezing air flows down and settles in the valleys (katabatic winds). It is colder at the bottom than at the top, which is called a temperature inversion, and with what little moisture there is, seas of clouds form.

Shady and sunny slopes

The mountain ranges run east to west, so they have a north face, the shady slope or umbría, and a south face, the sunny slope or solana. They get such different amounts of sun, heat and moisture that each one grows different vegetation.5

Shady slope (north)Sunny slope (south)← NS →
  • 2.900

    hours of effective sunshine a year6

  • 40

    days of frost, worse with temperature inversions, which bring hoar frost7

  • 45 °C

    between the lowest and highest temperatures of the year, near El Molinillo8

  • 7,5 °C

    below that temperature, plants hardly grow9

Read the full text5 min

The physical environment

The physical environment is decisive for the plant setting. Factors such as climate, geology and topography influence plant species and let us understand their presence or absence in a particular place. The factors can be:

  • Abiotic: climate, soil…
  • Biotic: the actions of other living beings, animals or humans.

Climatology and bioclimatology

The park’s climate is Mediterranean, characterised by a long summer drought –three to five months–, high temperatures and irregular rainfall, depending on the frequency and origin of the storms. So there are years with under 200 mm and others that exceed 1,000 mm. The rainiest part of the park is the western one, where the most active storms come in.

However, the Mediterranean climate of Cabañeros is tempered by the presence of the east–west Montes de Toledo and by the park’s own location on the Iberian Peninsula. Its relative closeness to the Atlantic Ocean produces a rainfall gradient and a temperature gradient, both linked to the arrival of Atlantic winds, which bring most of the rain.

The winds that bring the main rains to Cabañeros are called <<«ábregos»>>. They are damp winds from the south-west that weaken as we move east. In summer the Azores high moves north to our latitude and creates a barrier that stops westerly storms from coming in.

Altitude plays a fundamental role in recorded rainfall and temperature. The thermal stratification of the park can be worked out with the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The dry adiabatic lapse rate states that when a volume of air is forced to rise (by a rise in the ground, for example), it cools without losing energy as heat.

So, under pressure and temperature conditions close to the earth’s surface, the lapse rate tells us that temperature falls 1 ºC for every 150 metres of climb, so there is a difference of about 5 ºC between the highest points (~1,400 m) and the lowest (~600 m). In winter, though, the opposite can happen: the effect of thermal inversion, in which temperature rises with altitude. On clear, cold winter nights the air near the surface cools so fast that it cannot rise. And since the little moisture there is concentrates in the valleys and flat areas, the famous <<seas of cloud>> of Cabañeros appear.

Raña of Cabañeros
Raña of Cabañeros, Vicente García Canseco

There is also a rainfall gradient that increases with altitude, where rain rises on the most prominent mountain elevations, such as the Rocigalgo, at 1,449 metres. Although there are no great differences in altitude in the Montes de Toledo, the temperature and rainfall gradients have given rise to different vegetation belts, more or less distinctive, according to the existing drop in height.

In conclusion, the rainiest part of Cabañeros lies at higher altitudes in the west, specifically around the Rocigalgo massif, whose annual rainfall is about 1,000 mm. Precipitation as snow usually falls once a year on the north face of the first spurs of the Montes de Toledo, as in the Sierra del Castañar or at San Pablo de los Montes, including, of course, the Rocigalgo. By contrast, the driest part is in the north-west of the district, in places sheltered from the «ábrego» winds and on the lee side, where rainfall reaches only 400 mm a year.

The interior depressions of Cabañeros, such as the valleys of the Estena, the Upper Bullaque or Las Navas, are considered the intermediate conditions of the district, with rainfall close to 600 mm a year, which serves us as a reference for determining the climate of Cabañeros in detail.

As for temperatures, they show greater continentality as we approach the eastern sector, where oceanic winds have less flow. As a result there is a gradual rise in temperature from the north-west to the south-west.

Given the undulating topography of the park, there are different winds that vary with temperature and time of day:

  • By day: anabatic winds, that is, they run from the valleys towards the summits, because the air warms faster in the valleys.
  • By night: the opposite happens: katabatic winds come from the slopes down to the valleys.

However, the Appalachian-type relief of Cabañeros has a marked east–west direction that gives two predominant aspects: north (shady side, «umbría») and south (sunny side, «solana»). These areas receive such contrasting sunshine that it affects temperature, the amount of light received and surface moisture. The difference in aspect changes the ecosystem, giving completely different vegetation on each slope.

The relative continentality mentioned above in the north-east, near El Molinillo, is a notable feature of Cabañeros. There is a large difference between the minimum and maximum annual temperatures, which reaches 45 ºC. The same goes for the daily range, which averages 12 ºC and reaches 20 ºC in spring and autumn.

The thermotype is an index that measures thermal parameters, and the one that predominates in Cabañeros is called mesomediterranean. Although in the highest, coldest areas such as the Rocigalgo there are supramediterranean enclaves.

Among the factors that affect plant development, it is important to bear in mind that temperatures set the qualities of vegetation and its possible development. For example, below 7.5 ºC vegetative activity is so limited that biomass hardly increases. On the other hand, exposure to light defines the energy received and photosynthetic activity. The figures for Cabañeros are as follows:

  • Cabañeros receives 2,900 hours of effective sunshine a year.
  • There are 40 frost days, and their effects sharpen on the days when thermal inversion occurs, producing freezing fogs and rime.
  • Relative humidity is 75 per cent in the winter months and falls to 30 per cent at midday in the summer months.

The shape of the vegetation itself can create variations in climate, such as the crowns of holm oaks (Quercus), which create microclimates beneath them by not letting rays of light in or by reducing the intensity of frosts, giving different compositions of herbaceous species.

3Relief and soils

Ridge, slope and valley

The relief of Cabañeros can be simplified into three positions: dry ridges, middle slopes and wet valleys. Each has its own soil, and each soil its own plants.10

From the ridge to the peat bog

RidgeSteep slopeSlopePlainHollow

Lithosol · Ridge. Almost bare rock, on steep ground and constantly eroded. Only plants that live in cracks grow here, such as the rock pink.

Ranker · Steep slope. Soil less than 20 cm deep over slate or scree. Rockrose, heather and French lavender scrub.

Brown forest soil · Slope. Rich in organic matter, crumbly and full of roots: the best soils for woodland, with Portuguese oak, Pyrenean oak, strawberry tree, holm oak and cork oak.

Raña soil · Plain. With a lot of clay and quartzite cobbles, poor in nutrients. Many were farmed because they were easy to reach.

Peaty soil · Hollow. Peat bogs, bonales and quaking bogs: always waterlogged, with undecomposed organic matter. Specialised plants live here, many of them protected.

Read the full text3 min

Geology, topography and soils

Geomorphologically, Cabañeros and the Montes de Toledo show a marked Appalachian-type relief. They lie in the south-eastern sector of the Central Iberian zone of the Hesperian Massif and contain the core of ancient Precambrian and Palaeozoic rocks. Their materials are organised into two large groups that shape the relief of Cabañeros:

  • Ancient basement: Palaeozoic materials that form the sierras and mountains.
  • Recent, almost horizontal cover: materials coming from slopes and foothills that give rise to the rañas.

Armorican quartzites are the geological skeleton of the Montes de Toledo. They are very hard metamorphic rocks that easily resist erosion for millions of years. So much so that they are the ones that have formed the sierras and valleys by lasting longer than more erodible materials. These mountains formed about 300 million years ago, and between the quartzite crests rivers slip through and give rise to waterfalls such as the Boquerón del Estena or La Chorrera. Before their formation, continual marine transgressions left numerous marine fossils, among which trilobites stand out, and these can be seen today on many of the park’s routes.

The relief of Cabañeros can be simplified grosso modo into crest–slope–valley to understand the distribution of the main vegetation types:

  • Crests: the driest areas (xeric environment), the highest zones, where there is hardly any soil.
  • Valleys: the damp or water-loving areas, with deeper, more evolved and more fertile soils.
  • Slopes: mesophytic positions, intermediate between the above, called slope zones or flat zones with no moisture surplus.

This simple classification makes it possible to place plant communities in a simplified way. Given the east–west orientation of the mountain ranges in the Montes de Toledo, another factor for understanding the distribution of vegetation is slope aspect, whether shady or sunny. The first demands more moisture, while the second stands up better to dryness.

However, it is the soil that supplies the air to breathe, the water and the nutrients needed for plant development. According to the physiography of the land, soils are divided into two:

  • Flat areas:
    • Raña soils: evolved soils of structural complexity, containing quite a lot of clay and plentiful gravel and quartzite pebbles. They are poor in nutrients (eluvial horizon) and have little slope. Many of them were cultivated because of their accessibility, causing the loss of small river channels through the pumping out of rolled pebbles.
    • Hygropeat soils: made up of peat bogs, «bonales» and quaking bogs, they occur in intramontane areas, where there is no erosion and poorly decomposed organic matter builds up. They are badly aerated areas that produce a very acid humus type called oligotrophic peat. Specialised taxa, many of them protected, usually settle there, among which quaking bogs or transition mires stand out.
    • Linked to river channels:
  • Mountains:
    • Brown forest soil or dystric cambisols: rich in organic matter, with a crumbly, permeable and deeply rooted structure. They are sub-humid and make up the best forest soils, where tree growth abounds, such as Portuguese oak woods, Pyrenean oak woods, strawberry-tree thickets, holm oak woods and cork oak woods.
    • Ranker soils: poorly evolved soils less than 20 cm thick that rest on slates or slope debris. Their top layer is rich in organic matter and has a sandy, deeply rooted texture that rests on broken-up rock. They lie in areas of steeper slope than the cambisols, with poorer vegetation, generally shrubby, such as rockrose thickets, heathlands or lavender thickets.
    • Lithosols: skeletal soils formed by hard bedrock on the crests of the sierras, where the slope is very steep and constant erosion does not let them mature. There is hardly any vegetation on them, only some fissure-dwelling and rock-dwelling species such as the wild pink (Dianthus lusitanus).

4Water

A thousand kilometres of streams that dry up

Almost the whole park, 95.5 %, drains into the Guadiana.11 It has around a thousand kilometres of seasonal streams and a few dozen kilometres of rivers that never dry up.

Two basins

  • Guadiana 95.5 %
  • Tagus 4.5 %

Streams and rivers

About 1,000 km of streams that dry up in summer

A few dozen kilometres of permanent rivers

Each line, 50 kilometres.12

A lagoon that dries up every summer

On the rañas the clay does not let water through, and seasonal lagoons form on the flat ground. The largest, on the Raña de Horcajo, covers 9.64 hectares, is less than 80 cm deep and dries up around June.13

Less than 80 cm
Read the full text1 min

Hydrography

Cabañeros lies almost entirely in the basin of the River Guadiana (95.5 per cent; the rest belongs to the Tagus). The park’s river network is made up of a thousand kilometres of seasonal streams and fifty-odd kilometres of permanent rivers.

Its two main rivers are the Estena, which rises on the Rocigalgo and crosses 40 km of the park, and the Bullaque, at the park’s eastern end. The Estena is in the western part of the park, in more intramontane areas. The Bullaque, with a gentle slope, crosses the raña without deep gorges, except for the Portilla de la Torre de Abraham.

Cabañeros and its surroundings also have some seasonal ponds, among which the Laguna Grande de Alcoba, the Laguna de la Raña de Horcajo –the largest, at 9.64 ha– and the Laguna de los Cuatro Morros stand out. Their waters are oligosaline, that is, they have few dissolved salts, and lack nutrients. They form on the rañas, where the gentle slope and the high impermeability from the high clay content do not allow drainage. They are seasonal and dry up around June. They are less than 80 cm deep, but they sustain a far from negligible amphibious vegetation.

5Concepts

Vegetation and flora are not the same thing

Flora is the list of species; vegetation is how they group together. To read the plant landscape you need a handful of words, and here they are.

The list and the groups

Flora is the number and description of the species that live in a place: a list.

Vegetation is how those plants come together in communities: holm oak woods, rockrose scrub, grasslands…

The full address of Cabañeros

Biogeography studies how living things are spread across the Earth, and it does so in units that fit inside one another, like Russian dolls.

Holarctic Kingdom
Mediterranean Region
Western Mediterranean Subregion
Western Iberian Mediterranean Province
Luso-Extremaduran Subprovince
Toledo-Tagus Sector
Oretanian Subsector
Montes de Toledo District

The holm oak series

If nobody touches it, vegetation matures to its final stage, the climax: in Cabañeros, holm oak, Portuguese oak, cork oak and Pyrenean oak woods. The stages before are called serial, and a fire or a clearing sends it back.

  1. Grassland
  2. Rockrose or lavender scrub
  3. Strawberry tree or broom scrub
  4. Holm oak or cork oak wood

Serial stagesClimax

Words to read the woodland

  • Climax

    The most mature stage of vegetation under today's climate.

  • Vegetation series

    The communities that follow one another in the same place, from grassland to forest.

  • Catena

    Neighbouring communities that change with one factor: altitude or moisture.

  • Edapho-hygrophilous

    One that has more water than the rain brings, because the soil is wet.

  • Tempori-hygrophilous

    One that gets extra water from time to time, from run-off: the flooded meadows called navas.

  • Edapho-xerophilous

    One that has less water than the rain brings, because of the soil: ridges and rocky outcrops.

  • Permanent

    One that never becomes forest but stays in balance: peat bogs, rocky outcrops, screes.

  • Potential vegetation

    What there would be without human influence. The real vegetation may be rockrose scrub where holm oak would belong.

How a series gets its name

With two species: one that sets it apart and the one that dominates. Both change their endings, in the Latin of botanists.

wild pearPyrus bourgaeanaPyro bourgaeanae

holm oakQuercus rotundifoliaQuerco rotundifoliae

Pyro bourgaeanae-Querco rotundifoliae S.

Luso-Extremaduran mesomediterranean holm oak woods

Read the full text4 min

The plant landscape: basic concepts

Vegetation, or the plant landscape, is the set of plant communities, that is, plants, that live in a given territory. Vegetation refers to the set of plant communities. Flora, for its part, is the number and description of the taxa that live in a place. In short:

  • Vegetation: plant groupings.
  • Flora: a list of species.

Below we briefly define the concepts most used to understand this section.

  • Bioclimatology: the discipline that studies the relationships between climate and living things. A bioclimatic belt is each of the spaces that follow one another in altitude, with the resulting variations in temperature. For example, in Cabañeros there are two bioclimatic belts or thermotypes: the mesomediterranean, the commonest, and the supramediterranean, present in the highest, coldest areas such as the Rocigalgo.
  • Biogeography: the branch of biology that studies the distribution of living things on earth. There are different hierarchical units. Cabañeros belongs to the Holarctic Kingdom, Mediterranean region, Western Mediterranean subregion, Western Iberian Mediterranean province, Extremadura subprovince, Toledo–Tagus sector, Oretan subsector, Montes de Toledo district.
  • Catena: a set of contiguous plant associations affected by some changing ecological factor, whether rising height or changing moisture.
  • Climax: the final stage of progressive ecological succession. It is the most mature stage of a vegetation in the present climate, without regard to historical events or human actions. It is a synonym of zonal vegetation, and coincides with the potential climatophilous vegetation, which is the kind that uses only the moisture of rainfall. In Cabañeros it corresponds to holm oak woods, Portuguese oak woods, cork oak woods and Pyrenean oak woods.
  • Edaphohygrophilous communities: refers to plant communities that receive more moisture because their soil has more water. It is due to phreatism, caused by the abnormally high presence of water or moisture in the soil or subsoil. They therefore have more moisture than climatophilous communities.
  • Temporihygrophilous communities: communities that lie between the climatophilous and the edaphohygrophilous, since they have additional water inputs, especially runoff (rainwater that flows freely over the surface of the ground). They are climatophilous communities taken to the extreme; in fact they are sometimes called climato-temporihygrophilous. A typical example in the Montes de Toledo is the Isoeto-Nanojuncetea pastures on the «navas» (flat ground that floods) or the Portuguese oak woods of Quercus faginea subsp. broteroi.
  • Edaphoxerophilous communities: communities that receive less moisture than the climatophilous ones because of soil conditions, such as the rupicolous communities of the quartzite crests, the summit communities of the peaks or stripped soils.
  • Permanent communities: a synonym of paraclimax stage or azonal vegetation, these are communities whose climax (the mature stage of vegetation, woods) cannot settle but which stay in balance with their environment. Both edaphohygrophilous and edaphoxerophilous communities are sometimes included in this definition. In the park this group corresponds to the peat bogs on hygropeat soils, where waterlogged areas keep oxygen out (anoxia) and woodland cannot establish itself. Also the rupicolous or scree-dwelling communities on crests and pedrizas where there is little soil and plenty of bedrock.
  • Serial communities: immature vegetation at a stage below the climax. They can be poorly evolved or pioneer-colonising communities, such as rockrose thickets or lavender thickets, or quite evolved ones close to the climax, for example strawberry-tree thickets, broom thickets or mastic thickets.
  • Vegetation series: a set of plant communities that can be placed in the same chorological territory. At present in Cabañeros the holm oak or cork oak series is the dominant one and can be found at its climax stage or in its replacement stage, such as rockrose thickets, broom thickets, lavender thickets or pastures. These communities belong to the vegetation series. Two taxa are used to name it:
    • The first belongs to a characteristic or differential species that makes it possible to tell apart two series whose climax communities are dominated by the same species.
    • The second corresponds to the dominant species.

In this way one can tell apart, for example, the Lusitanian-Extremaduran holm oak woods of Cabañeros, on acid soils, from the La Mancha ones on basic soils.

Mesomediterranean Lusitanian-Extremaduran holm oak woods: Pyro bourgaeanae-Querco rotundifoliae S. The name comes from the dominant species, the holm oak (Quercus rotundifolia = Q. ilex subsp. ballota), and from the Iberian pear (Pyrus bourgaeana), the differential species. The endings are modified:

  1. In general, -o for the genus of the species, for example: Quercus-Querco; Pyrus-Pyro. Ending in -i, if it is the 3rd declension.
  2. The genitive singular with the specific name (-ae for the 1st declension), for example: rotundifolia-rotundifoliae).
  • Subseries or facies: a rank below the vegetation series with similar ecological and geographical characteristics. It differs from the series by having specific features; for example, holm oak woods are a vegetation series of the Montes de Toledo, while thermophilous holm oak woods are a subseries of those because they have different ecological characteristics, in this case greater warmth and a particular distribution (south of the Montes de Toledo), where heat-loving species such as Pistacia lentiscus occur.
  • Potential vegetation: vegetation that does not progress because of human action. It includes climax and permanent communities. In Cabañeros a mature holm oak or cork oak wood would be a case of potential vegetation. However, the <<real>> or <<current>> vegetation, as a consequence of human disturbance (clearing, charcoal burning, fires), may be, for example, a rockrose thicket.

6Classification

Trees, shrubs and grasses

Plant groupings fall into three groups: woods, scrub and shrubland, and herbaceous communities. Each community has its own page.

Read the full text1 min

Classification of plant groupings

They are divided into three groups:

  • Tree formations: woods or more or less dense stands of trees. There are two subgroups:
    • Climatophilous tree formations
    • Edaphohygrophilous communities or riverside woods
  • Shrub formations: these group both shrubs that do not exceed 7 metres and scrub. In most cases they tend to mix, hence the name.
  • Herbaceous communities: there are several subgroups because of morphological and ecological differences:
    • Therophyte communities: with annual species.
    • Xeromesophytic communities: perennial and annual species.
    • The dehesas: they have two clearly marked layers: the tree canopy and the herbaceous layer.

7News

What has been learned in recent years

The flora of Cabañeros is very well studied and still keeps surprising us. This is the most striking news from the park newsletter since 2023.

  • 3 volumes

    A complete work

    In 2026 the third volume of Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros came out, with what was found between 2017 and 2024 and, for the first time, palaeobotany.14

  • 211 lichens

    On the rocks

    85 new to the Montes de Toledo. The rock with the most species, the Armorican quartzite.15

  • 1st record

    A new orchid

    Ophrys sphegodes appeared in 2024 next to Casa Palillos. Orchids must not be picked: they need a soil fungus to germinate.16

  • 80,000 trees

    Planted on the raña

    Holm oaks, cork oaks and Portuguese oaks grown from acorns collected in the park, on some 290 hectares, in the winter of 2022-2023.17

Read the full text1 min

What has been learned in recent years

The flora of Cabañeros is very well studied, and yet it still holds surprises. The most striking of what the park newsletter has reported since 2023 (all the newsletters):

  • A complete reference work. In 2026 the third volume of Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros appeared, by R. Perea García-Calvo, D. F. Perea Ruiz-Tapiador and G. F. Giménez Velasco. It closes the survey of the flowering plants, adds what was found between 2017 and 2024 and, for the first time, covers palaeobotany.
  • Lichens, many and new. A study by Aragón and others (2024) found 211 species of rock-dwelling lichens at 18 points in the park and its surroundings: 85 new for the Montes de Toledo and 45 for Castilla-La Mancha. The rock with the most species is Armorican quartzite (128), and the richest sites are the Risco de las Paradas, in Hontanar, and the Boquerón del Estena. A year earlier the same team had counted 21 freshwater lichens, 18 of them new for the region, two of which (Aspicilia aquatica and Caloplaca diphyodes) were known only from the north of the peninsula.
  • Orchids. Spring 2024 brought the first record in the park of Ophrys sphegodes, beside Casa Palillos, and that of 2026, with the rains, one of the best orchid flowerings anyone remembers. The most abundant are Anacamptis champagneuxii and Serapias lingua; Dactylorhiza elata subsp. sesquipedalis lives in the «trampales». All of them need a soil fungus to germinate, so they are not dug up or transplanted.
  • New trees. The park plants between 30,000 and 40,000 trees a year. The winter of 2022–2023 was exceptional: 80,000 holm oaks, cork oaks and Portuguese oaks over about 290 hectares of the raña, raised from acorns collected in the park itself. In 2024–2025 another 23,731 native trees were planted.

Bibliography

  • Vicente García Canseco (Coor.) (1997). Parque Nacional de Cabañeros. Madrid, Spain: Ecohábitat.
  • Perea García-Calvo, R., Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D., Giménez Velasco, G.F. (2015). Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros. Volumen I. El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico. Madrid, Spain: Editorial Solitario

Notes

  1. 1Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Introduction» on this page.
  2. 2Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Climatology and bioclimatology» on this page.
  3. 3Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales (2011). Guía de visita del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, «Vegetación»: from 450 mm at El Torno, in the south-east, to 750 at Navas de Estena, in the north-west, p. 45.
  4. 4Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Climatology and bioclimatology» on this page.
  5. 5Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Climatology and bioclimatology» on this page.
  6. 6Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Climatology and bioclimatology» on this page.
  7. 7Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Climatology and bioclimatology» on this page.
  8. 8Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Climatology and bioclimatology» on this page.
  9. 9Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Climatology and bioclimatology» on this page.
  10. 10Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Geology, topography and soils» on this page.
  11. 11Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales (2011). Guía de visita del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, «Geología»: 95.5 % of the park lies in the Guadiana basin, p. 43.
  12. 12Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales (2011). Guía de visita del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, «Geología»: more than 40 km of permanent rivers and around 1,000 of seasonal streams, p. 43.
  13. 13Perea García-Calvo, R.; Perea Ruiz-Tapiador, D. and Giménez Velasco, G. F. (2015), Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, vol. I: El paisaje vegetal: ecología, conservación y rutas de interés geobotánico, Editorial Solitario. It is the source of the section «Hydrography» on this page.
  14. 14Newsletter «Desde el parque», Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, March–April 2026, p. 10: volume III of «Vegetación y flora del Parque Nacional de Cabañeros» is published.
  15. 15Newsletter «Desde el parque», Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, January–February 2024, p. 4: 211 species of rock lichens and 85 new records for the Montes de Toledo.
  16. 16Newsletter «Desde el parque», Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, March–April 2024, p. 5: Ophrys sphegodes, a new record for Cabañeros.
  17. 17Newsletter «Desde el parque», Parque Nacional de Cabañeros, January–February 2023, p. 8: 80,000 holm oaks, cork oaks and Portuguese oaks on some 290 hectares of the raña.